English Words from Proto-Indo-European
Every word has a story. Trace 217 common English words — from father and mother to wolf and wheel — back through centuries of sound change to their Proto-Indo-European ancestors, the reconstructed language spoken around 4500 BCE.
acre
A unit of land area; originally the amount of land an ox team could plough in a day.
← *h₂eǵ-
after
Following in time or place; behind.
← *h₂epo
ale
An alcoholic drink brewed from malted barley, traditionally without hops.
← *h₂el-
ash
The powdery residue left after combustion; also, a tree of the genus Fraxinus.
← *dóru
bath
An act of washing the body; a tub or pool for bathing.
← *bʰeh₂-
be
To exist; to occupy a state or position.
← *h₁es-
bear
To carry; to support the weight of; to endure.
← *bʰer-
bee
A flying insect known for collecting pollen and producing honey and wax.
← *bʰey-
bind
To tie or fasten tightly together; to restrain or hold.
← *bʰendʰ-
birch
A deciduous hardwood tree of the genus Betula, with distinctive white bark.
← *bʰerǵ-
bite
To use the teeth to cut into or grip something.
← *bʰeyd-
black
The darkest colour, the opposite of white; the colour of coal or a starless night.
← *bʰleg-
bleed
To lose blood from the body as a result of injury or illness.
← *bʰleh₁-
blood
The red fluid circulating through the body, carrying oxygen and nutrients to tissues.
← *bʰleh₃-
bone
A rigid organ that forms part of the skeleton in vertebrates.
← (no clear PIE root)
bread
Food made from flour, water, and yeast, mixed and baked.
← *bʰrewh₁-
break
To separate into pieces suddenly or violently; to fracture.
← *bʰreg-
bridge
A structure spanning and providing passage over a river, road, or other obstacle.
← *bʰruH-
bright
Giving out or reflecting much light; shining; vivid in color.
← *bʰerǵ-
brother
A male sibling; a man sharing parents with another.
← *bʰréh₂tēr
burn
To be on fire; to undergo combustion; to be consumed or damaged by fire or heat.
← *gʷʰer-
cloud
A visible mass of water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere.
← (no clear PIE root)
cold
Of or at a low temperature; not warm or hot.
← *gel-
come
To move towards; to arrive at a place.
← *gʷem-
cow
A mature female bovine animal kept for milk or beef.
← *gʷōws
cry
To shed tears; to call out loudly in distress, pain, or sorrow.
← *kerh₂-
dark
With little or no light; not bright or illuminated.
← (disputed)
daughter
A female child in relation to her parents.
← *dʰugh₂tḗr
day
The period of light between sunrise and sunset; a 24-hour period.
← *dʰegʷʰ-
death
The permanent end of life; the cessation of all biological functions.
← *dʰew-
deep
Extending far down from the surface; profound or intense.
← *dʰewb-
dew
Moisture condensed from the atmosphere, especially at night, on cool surfaces.
← *dʰews-
die
To cease to live; to expire.
← *dʰew-
do
To perform or carry out an action; to bring about.
← *dʰeh₁-
door
A hinged or sliding barrier used to close an entrance.
← *dʰwer-
dream
A series of images, thoughts, and sensations occurring involuntarily during sleep.
← *dʰrewgʰ-
drink
To take liquid into the mouth and swallow.
← (uncertain)
ear
The organ of hearing on either side of the head.
← *h₂ew-s-
earth
The ground beneath our feet; the planet we live on; soil.
← *dʰǵʰem-
east
The direction of sunrise; the orient.
← *h₂ews-
eat
To consume food by putting it in the mouth, chewing, and swallowing.
← *h₁ed-
eel
A long, snake-like freshwater or marine fish of the order Anguilliformes.
← *angʷʰi-
egg
The oval reproductive body laid by birds and reptiles; used widely as food.
← *h₂ōḱ-
eight
The number 8; one more than seven.
← *oḱtṓw
elm
A deciduous tree of the genus Ulmus, formerly one of the most common trees in European landscapes.
← *h₂el-
eye
The organ of sight; the part of the body used for seeing.
← *h₃ekʷ-
fall
To move downward rapidly without control; to drop from a higher to a lower level.
← *pōl-
father
Male parent; a man in relation to his child.
← *ph₂tḗr
feather
One of the light, flat structures growing from a bird's skin, forming its plumage.
← *peth₂-
field
An open area of land, especially one used for cultivation or pasture.
← *pleth₂-
fight
To take part in a violent struggle involving physical force or weapons.
← *peḱ-
find
To discover or come upon by chance or by searching.
← *pent-
fire
The phenomenon of combustion; burning heat and light.
← *péh₂wr̥
fish
A cold-blooded aquatic vertebrate with gills and fins, living entirely in water.
← *pisk-
five
The number 5; one more than four.
← *pénkʷe
flesh
The soft tissue of the body, especially muscle and fat; the physical body as opposed to the spirit.
← *pleh₁ḱ-
flow
To move steadily and continuously in a current or stream.
← *plew-
flower
The reproductive structure of a flowering plant, typically having colorful petals.
← *bʰleh₃-
foam
A mass of small bubbles formed on or in a liquid; froth.
← *pewH-mn̥
folk
People in general; the common people of a region or community.
← *polH-
food
Any substance consumed to provide nutritional support and energy for the body.
← *peh₂-
foot
The lower extremity of the leg; the part one stands and walks on.
← *ped-
ford
A shallow place in a river or stream where it can be crossed on foot or by vehicle.
← *per-
four
The number 4; one more than three.
← *kʷetwóres
full
Containing as much as possible; having no empty space.
← *pleh₁-
give
To transfer possession of something to someone without payment.
← *gʰebʰ-
go
To move from one place to another; to travel.
← *gʰeh₁-
god
A superhuman being worshipped as having power over nature and human fortunes; a deity.
← (disputed)
gold
A precious yellow metallic element, prized since antiquity.
← *gʰel-d-
goose
A large waterbird with a long neck, related to ducks and swans.
← *ǵʰans-
grass
Vegetation consisting of short plants with narrow leaves, growing wild or cultivated on lawns and pasture.
← *gʰreh₁-
great
Of an extent, amount, or intensity considerably above average; very large or important.
← *gʰrewt-
green
The colour of growing grass and leaves; between blue and yellow in the spectrum.
← *gʰreh₁-
hand
The end part of the arm beyond the wrist, including the palm, fingers, and thumb.
← (no clear PIE root)
head
The upper part of the body containing the brain, eyes, ears, nose, and mouth.
← *kaput-
hear
To perceive sound with the ears; to listen.
← *h₂ḱew-
heart
The muscular organ that pumps blood; the centre of emotion.
← *ḱerd-
high
Extending far upward; of great vertical extent.
← *ḱew-d-
hill
A raised area of land, smaller than a mountain.
← *kelh₂-
hold
To grasp, carry, or support with one's hands or arms.
← *kel-
home
The place where one lives; one's dwelling or native land.
← *ḱey-
honey
A sweet, viscous substance produced by bees from flower nectar.
← (uncertain)
horn
A hard pointed growth on the head of cattle, goats, and other animals; also a musical instrument.
← *ḱerh₂-
horse
A large domesticated equine used for riding and transport.
← (uncertain)
hound
A dog, especially one used for hunting.
← *ḱwon-
house
A building for human habitation; a dwelling place for a family.
← (disputed)
hundred
The number 100; ten tens.
← *ḱm̥tóm
ice
Frozen water; a solid formed when water reaches 0°C (32°F).
← *h₁eyH-
iron
A strong, hard, silvery-grey metallic element, the most commonly used of all metals.
← *h₂eyos-
king
A male ruler of a nation or territory, especially one who inherits the position by right of birth.
← *ǵenh₁-
knee
The joint connecting the thigh and lower leg.
← *ǵónu
know
To be aware of through observation, inquiry, or information.
← *ǵneh₃-
lake
A large body of fresh water surrounded by land.
← *lókus
land
The solid surface of the earth; a country or territory.
← *lendʰ-
laugh
To make spontaneous sounds and movements of the face and body expressing amusement.
← *kleh₁k-
law
A system of rules created and enforced by social or governmental institutions.
← *legʰ-
leaf
A flattened structure of a plant, typically green, where photosynthesis occurs.
← *leup-
learn
To gain knowledge or skill by studying, experience, or being taught.
← *leys-
life
The condition that distinguishes living organisms from dead ones; the period between birth and death.
← *gʷeyh₃-
light
The natural agent that stimulates sight and makes things visible; electromagnetic radiation.
← *lewk-
little
Small in size, amount, or degree.
← *lewd-
live
To be alive; to have life; to remain alive.
← *gʷeyh₃-
long
Of great length or duration; extending a considerable distance.
← *dlh₁gʰó-
love
An intense feeling of deep affection; to feel a deep romantic or sexual attachment.
← *lewbʰ-
man
An adult male human being; also historically, a human being of either sex.
← *man-
mare
An adult female horse.
← *h₁éḱwos
mead
An alcoholic drink made from fermented honey and water; the oldest known fermented beverage.
← *médʰu
meal
An occasion when food is eaten; ground grain or flour.
← *meh₂-k-
milk
A white nutritious liquid produced by mammals to feed their young.
← *h₂melǵ-
mind
The faculty of consciousness and thought; the element of a person that enables awareness.
← *men-
moon
Earth's natural satellite; the celestial body visible at night.
← *méh₁n̥s
mother
Female parent; a woman in relation to her child.
← *méh₂tēr
mountain
A large natural elevation of the earth's surface rising high above the surrounding level.
← *men-
mouse
A small rodent with a pointed snout and long tail.
← *muh₁s-
nail
A horny covering on the tip of a finger or toe; also a thin metal spike.
← *h₃nógʷʰ-
naked
Without clothes; having no covering, protection, or concealment.
← *nogʷ-
name
A word by which a person or thing is known.
← *h₃nómn̥
nest
A structure built by birds for laying eggs; any snug retreat or shelter.
← *sed-
net
An open-meshed fabric used for catching fish or enclosing an area; a network.
← *ned-
new
Recently made, discovered, or created; not existing before.
← *néwos
night
The period of darkness between sunset and sunrise.
← *nokʷt-
nine
The number 9; one more than eight.
← *h₁newn̥
north
The direction opposite to south; the colder regions.
← *h₂ner-
oak
A large hardwood tree of the genus Quercus, bearing acorns and prized for its strong timber.
← (disputed)
oath
A solemn promise or declaration, often invoking a divine witness.
← *h₃eyt-
old
Having lived or existed for a long time; not young or new.
← *h₂el-
one
The number 1; a single unit or individual.
← *h₁óynos
open
Not closed or blocked; allowing access or passage.
← *upo
over
Above, across, or beyond in position or extent.
← *uper
ox
An adult castrated bull used as a draft animal, or more broadly any bovine.
← *h₂uḱs-
path
A way or track laid down for walking; a route or course.
← *pent-
play
To engage in activity for enjoyment and recreation rather than for a serious or practical purpose.
← *dleyg-
plow
An implement for cutting and turning soil; to till the earth.
← *pleh₂-
queen
A female ruler of a nation; the wife of a king.
← *gʷenh₃-
quick
Moving fast or doing something in a short time; rapid.
← *gʷeyh₃-
rain
Water falling in drops from clouds in the sky.
← *h₁reg-
red
The colour of blood and fire; the first colour on the visible spectrum.
← *h₁rewdʰ-
right
Morally correct; just; the opposite of left; a legal entitlement.
← *h₃reǵ-
river
A large natural stream of water flowing to the sea, a lake, or another river.
← *h₁reyH-
rope
A length of thick, strong cord made by twisting or braiding strands together.
← *h₁rep-
run
To move swiftly on foot; to flow or operate.
← *h₁er-
salmon
A large fish of the family Salmonidae, known for swimming upstream to spawn.
← *lóksos
salt
A white crystalline substance used for seasoning and preserving food.
← *seh₂l-
sea
The expanse of salt water that covers most of the Earth's surface.
← *seh₂i-
see
To perceive with the eyes; to observe visually.
← *sekʷ-
seed
A plant's unit of reproduction, containing an embryo capable of growing into a new plant.
← *seh₁-
seven
The number 7; one more than six.
← *septm̥
sheep
A domesticated ruminant mammal kept for its wool, meat, and milk.
← (uncertain)
ship
A large vessel for traveling on water, propelled by sails or engines.
← (uncertain)
shut
To close or block an opening; to bring together the parts of.
← *skewH-d-
sing
To make musical sounds with the voice, especially words set to a melody.
← *sengʷʰ-
sister
A female sibling; a woman sharing parents with another.
← *swésor
sit
To rest with one's weight on the buttocks; to be seated.
← *sed-
six
The number 6; one more than five.
← *swéḱs
skin
The outer covering of the body; the hide or pelt of an animal.
← *skey-
sky
The expanse of air above the earth; the heavens.
← *skewH-
sleep
A natural state of rest in which consciousness is suspended.
← (uncertain)
smile
To form one's features into a pleased or amused expression, with the corners of the mouth turned up.
← *smey-
snow
Frozen water vapour that falls as soft white flakes.
← *snéygʷʰ-
son
A male child in relation to his parents.
← *suHnús
soul
The spiritual or immaterial part of a human being, regarded as immortal.
← (disputed)
south
The direction to the left when facing the rising sun; the warmer regions.
← *sóh₂wl̥
sow
To plant seeds by scattering them on the ground.
← *seh₁-
speak
To say words aloud; to talk; to communicate verbally.
← *bʰeh₂-
spring
The season between winter and summer; to leap or move suddenly; a source of water.
← *sprenǵʰ-
stand
To be in an upright position on one's feet.
← *steh₂-
star
A luminous celestial body visible as a point of light in the night sky.
← *h₂stḗr
steel
A strong alloy of iron and carbon; figuratively, hardness or determination.
← *steh₂-
steer
To guide or control the direction of movement; a young male ox.
← *stew-r-
still
Motionless; calm and quiet; continuing as before.
← *stel-
stone
A hard solid piece of mineral matter; rock.
← *steh₂-
summer
The warmest season of the year, between spring and autumn.
← *sem-
sun
The star at the centre of the solar system; source of daylight.
← *sóh₂wl̥
sweet
Having the taste of sugar or honey; pleasant.
← *sweh₂d-
swim
To propel oneself through water using movements of the limbs or body.
← *swem-
swine
A pig; pigs collectively.
← *suHnús
sword
A weapon with a long metal blade and a handle, used for thrusting or striking.
← (no clear PIE root)
teach
To impart knowledge or instruct someone in how to do something.
← *deyḱ-
ten
The number 10; the base of the decimal system.
← *déḱm̥t
think
To use the mind to consider, reason, or form connected ideas.
← *tong-
thirst
A feeling of needing or wanting to drink; a lack of the liquid needed to sustain life.
← *ters-
three
The number 3; one more than two.
← *tréyes
through
Moving in one side and out the other; from beginning to end.
← *terh₂-
thunder
The loud rumbling or crashing sound caused by the rapid expansion of air heated by lightning.
← *(s)teh₂n-
time
The indefinite continued progress of existence; a measured duration.
← *deh₂-
tongue
The muscular organ in the mouth used for tasting, licking, swallowing, and speech.
← *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂
tooth
A hard, calcified structure in the jaw used for biting and chewing.
← *h₁dónt-
tree
A perennial woody plant with a trunk, branches, and leaves.
← *dóru
true
In accordance with fact or reality; genuine; loyal or faithful.
← *deru-
two
The number 2; one more than one.
← *dwóh₁
under
Below or beneath in position; subject to the authority of.
← *n̥dʰer-
voice
The sound produced in a person's larynx and uttered through the mouth; the ability to speak.
← *wekʷ-
walk
To move at a regular pace by lifting and setting down each foot in turn.
← *welh₁-
warm
Of or at a fairly high temperature; giving off or retaining heat.
← *gʷʰer-
water
A transparent, odourless liquid essential for life.
← *wódr̥
way
A road, path, or route; a method or manner of doing something.
← *weǵʰ-
weave
To form fabric by interlacing threads on a loom; to intertwine.
← *webʰ-
web
A network of fine threads spun by a spider; an interconnected system or structure.
← *webʰ-
west
The direction of sunset; the occident.
← *h₂wes-r-
wheel
A circular frame that revolves on an axle; used for transport.
← *kʷekʷlo-
white
Of the colour of milk or fresh snow; the lightest colour, the opposite of black.
← *ḱweyd-
whole
Entire; complete; not broken or damaged; all of something.
← *solh₂-
wide
Having great extent from side to side; broad.
← *h₂weyd-
widow
A woman whose spouse has died and who has not remarried.
← *h₁widʰéwh₂
wind
Moving air, especially a natural current blowing from a particular direction.
← *h₂weh₁-
winter
The coldest season of the year, between autumn and spring.
← *wed-
wolf
A large wild canine that hunts in packs.
← *wĺ̥kʷos
woman
An adult female human being.
← *gʷenh₃-
wood
The hard fibrous substance of trees; a dense growth of trees.
← *h₂weyd-
word
A single distinct meaningful element of speech or writing.
← *werh₁-
work
Activity involving mental or physical effort done to achieve a purpose or result.
← *h₁werg-
worm
A long, soft-bodied invertebrate; any creeping creature.
← *wŕ̥mis
write
To form letters, words, or symbols on a surface, typically with a pen or pencil.
← (uncertain)
year
A period of approximately 365 days, corresponding to one revolution of the Earth around the Sun.
← *yeh₁r-
yew
An evergreen coniferous tree of the genus Taxus, often associated with churchyards.
← *h₂ey-w-
yoke
A wooden beam fastened over the necks of two animals for pulling.
← *yugóm
young
Having lived for only a short time; not old.
← *h₂yew-