summer
The warmest season of the year, between spring and autumn.
Etymology
Modern English summer comes from Old English sumor, from Proto-Germanic *sumaraz, likely from PIE *sem- meaning "together, one" or possibly from a variant *sm̥-h₂ero- "half-year." The exact etymology is debated, but the prevailing view connects it to the idea of a "half" or "season" — one of two major divisions of the year (summer and winter) that preceded the four-season model. Sanskrit samā "year, season" and Avestan hama "summer" are close cognates. Old Irish sam "summer" and Welsh haf point to a Celtic reflex of the same root. Within Germanic, Old Norse sumar, German Sommer, and Gothic *sumers all descend from the same ancestor. The ancient two-season division of the year into summer and winter is preserved in English place names and customs — midsummer marks the solstice, and the word semester literally means "six months" from the same root.
The Journey: *sem- → summer
*sem-
*sumaraz
sumor
sumer, somer
summer
Cognates Across Languages
These words in other languages descend from the same PIE root *sem-. They are not borrowings but independent inheritances from a common ancestor.
| Language | Word | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Sanskrit | samā | year, season |
| Old Irish | sam | summer |
| Welsh | haf | summer |
| Old Norse | sumar | summer |
| Avestan | hama | summer |
Did You Know?
Before the four-season calendar was adopted, most Germanic peoples divided the year into just two seasons: summer and winter. This ancient binary is fossilised in terms like midsummer and midwinter, and in the word semester, which literally means "six months" — one half of the year.